Print Culture & Modern World : Explore the fascinating history of print culture, from its origins in East Asia and Europe to its revolutionary impact on society, religion, enlightenment, and colonial India. Discover how printing transformed knowledge, ideas, and social reforms worldwide.
Print Culture & Modern World
Printing is defined as the method or process of putting text and images onto paper. The journey of printing, from simple hand techniques to mechanical revolution, began in East Asia before spreading to Europe and eventually transforming the modern world, including India.
The Origin of Print in East Asia
The early history of print starts in East Asia, specifically in China, Japan, and Korea, where hand printing was initially used.
China: Woodblocks and Bureaucracy
Printing in China began around 594 AD, utilizing the woodblock printing technique. This was a form of hand printing where paper was manually rubbed onto a wooden block that had been inked with the desired pattern. A key limitation was that early Chinese paper was quite thin and porous, often resulting in the ink bleeding through to the other side. Consequently, books were printed only on one side and bound in an “accordion style”.
The initial purpose of printed books in China was bureaucratic: to provide textbooks for candidates preparing for the civil service entrance examinations. As the number of aspirants grew, so did the production of printed material.Print Culture & Modern World
By the 17th century, print culture diversified due to the rise of urban culture and the growing interest in reading as a leisure activity. New forms of reading material included fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies, and plays. Even wealthy women in China began to publish their own poetry and plays. Although hand printing persisted, the mechanical printing press arrived from Europe in the late 19th century, dramatically increasing production and establishing Shanghai as a key hub of the new print culture.
Japan: Buddhist Influence and Visual Culture
Hand printing was brought to Japan by Buddhist missionaries who travelled from China around 768–770 AD. The first printed book in Japan was the ‘Diamond Sutra,’ published around 868 AD. This book contained six sheets featuring both text and wood-cut illustrations.
Over time, print in Japan diversified beyond books, being used for textiles, paper money, and playing cards. During the medieval period (13th to 16th centuries), poets and prose writers regularly published their books, increasing the abundance and affordability of books in the market. By the late 18th century, the city of Edo (modern Tokyo) saw a surge in the printing of various paintings. The famous Japanese artist Kitagawa Utamaro (born 1753) created art forms called ukiyo-e which depicted the “Floating World” and ordinary human experiences.Print Culture & Modern World
The Arrival of Print in Europe
The paper itself travelled from China to Europe via the Silk Routes in the 11th century. Prior to printing technology, Europeans relied on expensive manuscripts (handwritten books).
The technique of woodblock printing was brought to Italy by the explorer Marco Polo in 1295, following his years of exploration in China. Although this led to the production of some printed books, the quality was often poor, and the wealthy aristocracy preferred high-quality manuscripts written on vellum (paper made from animal skin). However, students and merchants welcomed the hand-printed books because they were affordable.
Despite the arrival of hand printing, demand for books quickly outstripped supply. Copying manuscripts by hand was expensive, laborious, time-consuming, and the resulting documents were fragile. A need for faster and cheaper technology became apparent.Print Culture & Modern World
Gutenberg and the Mechanical Press
The problem was solved by Johann Gutenberg of Germany, a master goldsmith and the son of a merchant who was familiar with wine and olive presses. Using his combined knowledge of mechanics and molding, Gutenberg invented the world’s first mechanical printing press in 1430.
The key feature of his press was the use of movable alphabetical molds. The press was perfected by 1448, and the first book printed was the Bible. Producing 180 copies of the Bible over three years was considered a monumental achievement for the era.
This revolutionary shift from hand printing to mechanical production marks the beginning of the Print Revolution. Between 1450 and 1550, printing presses rapidly spread across Europe. Book production boomed, soaring from an estimated 20 million copies in the 15th century to 200 million by the mid-16th century.
The Impact of the Print Revolution
A New Reading Public
The Print Revolution led to the emergence of a “new reading public”. As book prices dropped, they became affordable for common citizens. Society gradually shifted from an oral culture (where people gathered to hear narrations) to a reading public. To cater to the newly emergent readers who were often semi-literate, publishers began producing books that utilized more images than text.
Print, Religion, and the Fear of Rebellion
The rapid circulation of ideas through print instilled fear in authorities who worried that uncontrolled printing could spread rebellious and irreligious thoughts, causing people to question established authorities.Print Culture & Modern World
This fear was realized during the Protestant Reformation. In 1517, Martin Luther wrote his 95 Theses, openly criticizing the practices of the Roman Catholic Church. His writings were quickly reproduced and circulated, leading to mass support and the formation of the Protestant movement. Luther himself recognized the immense power of print, calling it “God’s supreme gift”.
In reaction to the perceived threat, especially after incidents like the execution of the Italian miller Menocchio in the 16th century (who misinterpreted the Bible and published objectionable material), the Roman Catholic Church imposed strict controls. In 1558, the Church issued an Index of Prohibited Books, listing materials that were banned from publication.
Reading Mania and the Enlightenment
By the 17th and 18th centuries, literacy rates in Europe increased significantly (reaching 60% to 80% by the end of the century) due to the opening of schools by the Church. This rise in literacy created a “Reading Mania” and a high demand for reading material.
New types of literature emerged, including almanacs, ballads, folk tales, chap books (small, cheap, pocket-sized books), newspapers, and journals. Crucially, the ideas and theories of scientists and philosophers like Isaac Newton, Voltaire, and Rousseau were disseminated widely.
Many believed that print was the key to progress and would lead to the Enlightenment. French novelist Louise-Sebastien Mercier considered printing the “most powerful engine of progress and public opinion” that would eliminate despotism (a system of absolute power like a monarchy).
Historians argue that print played a crucial role in undermining the authority of the Church and despotic rulers, significantly contributing to the French Revolution. Print popularized the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers and created a culture of critique that exposed the injustices of the existing social structure.Print Culture & Modern World
Print in the 19th Century
The 19th century saw further expansion and specialization in printed material for various groups:
- Children: Due to compulsory primary education, the production of school textbooks increased. A dedicated children’s press was set up in France in 1857. The German Grimm Brothers collected and published traditional folk tales for children.Print Culture & Modern World
- Women: Women became both readers and writers. Penny magazines and manuals based on “proper behavior and housekeeping” were published specifically for them. Novelists like Jane Austen and the Bronte Sisters helped define a new image of women characterized by “will, strength and determination”.
- Workers and the Poor: Lending Libraries were introduced, allowing poor people, white-collar workers, and artisans who could not afford books to rent them. Workers became self-educated and began writing their own political tracts and autobiographies.
Technological Innovations
The 19th and early 20th centuries brought significant advancements in printing technology:
- Richard M. Hoe (New York) invented a Cylindrical Press that was power-driven and could print 8,000 copies per hour.
- The Offset Press was invented, capable of printing six colors at once.
- By the 20th century, nearly all printing presses became electrically operated.Print Culture & Modern World
- Improvements were also seen in paper feeding, plate quality, automatic paper reels, photo-electric control, and the introduction of book covers (jackets).
India and the World of Print
Manual Scripts Before Print
Before the advent of the printing press in India, handwritten manuscripts were common. They were written in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and various vernacular languages on palm leaves and handmade paper, often stitched together with wooden covers. However, these manuscripts were expensive, fragile, and difficult for everyone to understand due to being written by different scribes in diverse styles.Print Culture & Modern World
The Arrival of the Press
The printing press arrived in India in the mid-16th century, brought by Portuguese Missionaries to Goa. By 1674, 50 books were printed in the Konkani and Kannada languages. Dutch missionaries later printed 32 Tamil texts by 1710.
English printing began in 1780 with the first English weekly, the Bengal Gazette, published by the Irishman James Augustus Hicky. Hicky used the paper to criticize the East India Company and publish gossip about officials. Governor General Warren Hastings had Hicky prosecuted (jailed) because the magazine was damaging the Company’s image. The first Indian-started English newspaper, also called the Bengal Gazette, was launched later by Gangadhar Bhattacharya.
Religious Reforms and Public Debates
The early 19th century witnessed intense public debates over religious issues, which were widely circulated through print. Social and religious controversies focused on topics like widow immolation (Sati), priesthood, and idolatry.
- Reformers used vernacular print to spread their ideas. Raja Ram Mohan Roy published the weekly newspaper Sambad Kaumudi (1821) to campaign for the abolition of Sati. The Hindu orthodox community opposed him through their own newspaper, the Samachar Chandrika.
- Muslim Ulemas used lithographic presses to print translations of holy scriptures in Urdu and Persian, as well as religious tracts, to protect their faith from perceived threats of Christian conversion. The Deoband Seminary (established 1867) issued thousands of fatwas to guide Muslims in daily life.
- Hindu religious books also became widely available in vernacular languages. The first printed edition of Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas (in Awadhi) was printed in Calcutta in 1810.Print Culture & Modern World
New Forms and Social Commentary
In India, new literary forms like novels, short stories, and essays began to emerge. Print also facilitated the rise of visual culture by making it easy to replicate images. The famous paintings of Raja Ravi Varma were frequently printed and disseminated. Cartoons and caricatures also became popular for commenting on social and political issues.
Women, Caste, and Print
- Women’s Education: Conservative Hindu and Muslim beliefs often held that women should not read, fearing they would become widows or corrupt. Despite this, many women struggled for education and learned to read in secret.
- Rashsundari Debi wrote the first autobiography by a woman in Bengali, ‘Amar Jiban,’ in 1876. Female reformers like Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote about the struggles faced by upper-caste Hindu women, particularly widows. By the 1870s, printing focused on topics relevant to women, such as education, widowhood, and widow remarriage.Print Culture & Modern World
- Caste Discrimination: Cheap books and public libraries provided reading opportunities for the poor. Print became a tool to criticize caste-based injustice. Jyotiba Phule published ‘Gulamgiri’ in 1873. The writings of B.R. Ambedkar and E.V. Ramaswamy were widely read across India.
Print and Censorship in Colonial India
Before 1798, the colonial government was not overly strict about censorship. However, when some Englishmen began to criticize the Company’s trade monopoly through print, regulations were passed by the Calcutta Supreme Court in the 1820s to control press freedom.
In 1835, Governor General Bentinck revised the press laws with the help of Thomas Macaulay, restoring some freedom.Print Culture & Modern World
However, the Revolt of 1857 changed the government’s attitude completely. To suppress the growing wave of nationalism expressed in regional newspapers, the British passed the Vernacular Press Act in 1878.
This Act maintained strict surveillance over vernacular newspapers and allowed the government to seize the entire printing press if a warned newspaper continued to publish material deemed critical of colonial rule. Despite this censorship, nationalist articles continued to be printed. For instance, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was jailed in 1907 for an article published in his newspaper, the Kesari, leading to widespread national protests.